Application of John Dewey’s “Complete Act of Thought” To Teaching in Nigerian Phylosophy of Education.

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Vol. 1, No.3, Jan 2005
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Application of John Dewey’s “Complete Act of Thought” To
Teaching in Nigerian Philosophy of Education

Tony Idowu Aladejana
(Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-ife, Nigeria)


John Dewey, an American twentieth century educational philosopher has generated a lot of controversy
especially in his educational views as expressed in Democracy and Education. Through this article, it is
hoped that his specific views on education principles of method are introduced in Nigeria. One strongly
believes that Dewey’s scientific method of inquiry as spelt out in his “Complete Act Of Thought” can be
vigorously and fruitfully applied to Nigeria’s developing philosophy of education, as the method is
scientific, meaningful, and purposeful. This paper examines “Dewey’s Complete Act of Thought” and
discusses how it can be applied to teaching in the Nigerian philosophy of education. In order to achieve
this, the paper appropriated three types of explanation to serve as examples of how the five steps of the
method can be applied.
Introduction
The purpose of this essay is to examine Dewey’s “Complete Act of Thought” and discuss how it
is applicable to teaching in the Nigerian philosophy of education. The paper considered three
types of explanation and how they can be applied to teaching in . John Dewey, 1 (1859-1952) was
trained in formal philosophy and devoted his efforts to elaborating a philosophy of education.
Dewey was a prolific author and his Democracy and Education (1916), contained his major
statements on educational theory. His other works include: The School and the Society (1898),
which recounted his educational practices at the Laboratory School of the University of Chicago.
His How we think (1910), stressed problem-solving as complete inquiry. In 1934, he wrote Art
as Experience, which treated the aesthetic dimension of human experience.2
As a postgraduate student, Dewey has to study with Hegelian Idealists3 as they dominated
philosophy departments of American Universities at the end of the nineteenth century. John
Dewey however was also interested in the evolutionary theory of Darwin. Thus, Darwinism was
more significant to Dewey than Hegelianism. Darwin’s evolutionary theory has postulated that
there exits an environment in which organism must adapt in order to survive. “Environment” and
“Organism” were crucial in the development of experimental philosophy of education of John
Dewey. The organism, a living creature possesses a set of impulses to assist in the maintenance
of its life, lives in an environment that both threatens and nourishes its evolutionary (on-going)
existence. Dewey believed that the scientific method or the “Complete Act of Thought” if
properly and broadly conceived and applied is man’s most accurate and efficient means of
directing the process of change. According to Dewey, the organism encounters problematic
situations that threaten its ongoing existence. This statement can be rephrased in form of an
example to accentuate its pedagogic implication: pupils are constantly challenged with one
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problem or another in the course of their classroom endeavors. These challenges or “problems”
actually threaten the survival of the pupils. They determine their success and failure.4 The wouldbe
successful ones therefore must solve these problems since they act as deterrents or stumbling
blocks to other activities, e.g. job opportunities, promotions, et cetera. And for John Dewey, the
solution to these problems demands an interaction with the environment, which constitutes
experience and each successful problem – solving episode builds a transactional network
between the individual and his environment. 5
The Five Steps Of The “Complete Act Of Thought” Of John Dewey
John Dewey’s “Complete Act of Thought” is firmly rooted in his belief that man lives in a social
as well as a physical environment and these form life promoting groups. Such a human
association enriches experience by providing opportunities for increased human interaction
through which individual experiences grow more complex and hence provide greater
opportunities for growth. Human intelligence is the sum of this shared experience6.
“Complete Act of Thought” or reflective thought of the scientific method is a behaviour pupils
should exhibit when they meet situations they cannot deal with on the basis of habit. For Dewey,
habit gives continuity to experience and the power to adjust to the environment and control it.
But the environment is never completely stable since indeterminate and disunified situations
constantly develop. The existential nature of these problems make them perplexing and
problematic to the students or persons involved because as pointed out above, habit no longer
suffices to guide behaviour. In short, the person caught up in these circumstances does not know
what to do. John Dewey illustrated the problematic situation in How We Think thus:
A man traveling in an unfamiliar region comes to a branching of the road.
Having no sure knowledge to fall back upon, he is brought to a standstill
of hesitation and suspense. Which road is right? And how shall his perplexity
be resolved? There are but two alternatives: he must either blindly and arbitrarily take his
course, trusting to luck for the outcome, or he must discover grounds for the conclusion that a
given road is right. 7
In the illustration presented by Dewey above, there is an option. One can act blindly by trusting
providence that the decision one makes turns out favourably, one can act on the basis of
intelligence, that is, regulating ones behaviour by reflection. In this case, reflective thought
offers the unique service of providing some plan of action that promises best to resolve the
problematic and doubtful character of the situation, that is, in Dewey’s example, to choose the
right branch of the road.
However, apart from acting intelligently, that is regulating ones behaviour to choose the right
road by reflecting, suppose the person does not have the resources adequate for dealing with the
situation intelligently? According to Dewey, he will have to be forced to some more primitive
level of behaviour. It seems confusion remains pure confusion. In Dewey’s words: “even when
a child (or a grown-up) has a problem, it is wholly futile to urge him to think when he has no
prior experiences that involve some of the same conditions”. 8
According to John Dewey, every “Complete Act Of Thought” involves the following five steps:
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1. An indeterminate (a branching of the road) situation ensues. There is perplexity,
confusion and doubt by one’s involvement in a situation whose full character is undetermined.
This situation disrupts the smooth flow of ones experience because prior experience of habit is
totally inadequate to deal with it. The situation calls for a complete act of thought, or stimulate
reflective behaviour. It should be pointed out that when there is no determinate or disturbing
state of affairs, there is no thought or reflective behaviour since habit is sufficient to deal with the
situation (which actually is no situation since there is nothing disturbing).
2. Dewey calls the second step “ a conjectural anticipation, a tentative interpretation of the
given elements. Attributing to them a tendency to effect certain consequences”9. In other words,
the person involved perceives the situation in its problematic character; he thus defines it, and
attempts to locate the problem.
3. This phase involves a careful survey including examination, inspection, exploration and
analysis of all relevant data necessary to define and clarify the problem. Here, ideas are evolved
to guide action that must be undertaken to enhance the solution of the problem.
4. The tentative hypothesis is subjected to logical elaboration. This is the effort to
determine what outcomes can be for-seen as probable in solving the problem.
5. The projected hypothesis is tested to ascertain or secure the desired result. If the problem
is solved, then the learner resumes activity until he encounters another problem.10
As pointed out above, there are connections here between Dewey’s analysis of thinking and his
conception of educational method. The school according to him, is not only concerned with the
intellectual growth of its pupils but also with the other phases of experience since they too
involve apprehension of meaning. Examples of those phases of experience are ethics and
aesthetics. John Dewey thus believed that from the intellectual point of view, the methodology
of education should enhance activity in school that involves problem solving through the
scientific method of inquiry. This should begin with the child’s first experience in school. The
role of the home in this endeavour cannot be overstressed. It appears that the control the school
has on the scientific method of inquiry of the child at home is limited. It must be noted however,
according to Dewey, that there is no set order in the five phases; there is nothing sacrosanct
about having five phases; there are sub phases with each phase; in practice two phases may
telescope into one; some phases may be passed over hurriedly; and the burden of reaching a
conclusion may fall mainly on a single phase, which will then require a seemingly
disproportionate development. Dewey concluded his explanation of not ascribing an orthodox to
the five phases thus: “No set rules can be laid down on such matters. The way they are managed
depends upon the intellectual fact and sensitiveness of the individual” 11
Since Dewey published the book, How We Think, many variations of these five phases have
been suggested. Some authors have reduced the five steps to three while others have increased
them to nine.12 Irving M. Copi in Introduction to Logic preferred to refer to the scientific method
as “the general pattern of scientific research.” 13 Some other authors prefer such popular labels
like; “the main step in disciplined thought”14 or steps in a mode of inquiry for the social
studies”15, some simply suggest variations in Dewey’s list16.
One feels concerned about these five phases, as there are obvious benefits to both the teacher and
the learner in Nigeria in following a paradigm of some sort. The task ahead lies in the way of
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conducting discovery, a way of knowing what to do, a way of benefiting from success, a way of
avoiding error. Gilbert Ryle epitomized the above thus:
Teaching people how to do things just is teaching them methods or
modi operandi ¼ A method is a learnable way of doing something,
where the work ‘way’ connotes more than mere rote or routine.
We should think of inculcation of methods rather as training the
pupils to avoid specified muddles, blockages, side-tracts... by
training them to recognize these for what they are¼. Road signs
are not, for the most part impediments to the flow of traffic. They
are preventatives of impediments to the flow of traffic. 17
Critiques of twentieth century Western educational philosophers e.g. R. S. Peters, George F.
Kneller, Harry Broudly, Jonas Soltis, and indeed critiques of western influence on the developing
Nigeria philosophy of education may raise eye-brows at the caption of this essay. Such critiques,
one expects to center on questions like why put a new wine into an old wine skin? Why
applying Dewey’s American Educational methodology to the Nigerian philosophy of education?
Why not “indigenize” our educational philosophy? These and others sound apologetic, but the
point is worth making; new breed of Nigerian educational philosophers and other educators and
educational administrators have no cause to recommend unfeasible educational principles for this
country as we have all experienced the futility of such endeavours in the past.
Application of the Five Steps to Teaching in Nigeria
For research purposes, it may be acceptable to accentuate John Dewey’s complete act of thought
but it may be another question attempting to apply it as a teaching method in Nigeria. It is
another question because as the saying goes “The sugar-cane plant does have its own juice
before the rain falls”. Why does one need to introduce a new method of teaching in Nigeria at
this time when everything seems being consolidated? While one realizes that no one method of
teaching is the solution to pedagogical practices one acknowledges that there are serious
limitations to our present methods. For example, one may claim that education does not seem to
have changed substantially the character and conduct of our youngsters. There have been
protests against memory work, against cramming, against what Dewey termed “gradual
preoccupation with facts.” 19 Our pupils (may be some parents too) seem to be contented with
other people’s knowledge as this satisfied school purposes, for the sake of examinations and
promotions.
It is time to reconsider the adequacy and inadequacy of the nature of our methods. One will not
be surprised to find out that most if not all, of our primary and secondary school teachers in
Nigeria teach relying on their memories20 rather than on pedagogic methods, skills and
experiences.
John Dewey’s complete act of thought should be employed to serve as the basis of the activity
method of learning of inquiry approach, which is obviously lacking in Nigerian pedagogic
endeavours. The inquiry approach will go a long way to help the pupils solve problems based on
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their associated and individual interests and needs. As a result of learning through this process, the
pupils are expected to be able to transfer their knowledge to situations in and out of school.
Apart from that, problem-solving requires internal self-discipline desperately needed in this
country, rather than the type of external coercion often administered by most teachers in our schools
in the wrong belief that disciplines come from the problem itself and is internal to the requirements
of the task posed by the problem. The complete act of thought of Dewey requires that instead of
applying external coercion, the teacher should guide the learner in solving problems (not directly
solving it for him).
It is about time that the scientific method is tried in a larger scale in Nigeria because as the pupils
are guided to use it, their co-operative experiences of working with others in associated problemsolving
groups are enriched. As participating members of the group, the pupils learn to co-operate
with others, contribute to the discussion, they are integral part of the deliberations and decide to act
with others. This method of education will definitely stress the co-operative act, based on shared
experiences and use of democratic practices urgently needed to bring sanity into the whole gamut of
the society.
The purpose or end of education according to Dewey is growth, which leads to the direction and
control of subsequent experience. Growth involves the ability to relate experiences and to use
them. Learning by experience through problem-solving means that education like life is a process
that involves the continuous reconstruction of experience. 21
As one embarks on the discussion of the application of these five phrases to teaching method in the
philosophy of Nigerian education, one needs to make two clarifications. Firstly, though one may
argue that these five phases are equally applicable to the lecture or recitation methods, that is, in the
sense that they represent what the teacher should do, they are however more generally closely
associated with the discovery, scientific or reflective method of teaching. The simple reason behind
the above is that the discovery method requires continued, active participation by both the teacher
and pupils. The five phases serve as guide for both the teacher and the pupils as they endeavour to
tackle learning problems. Secondly these five phases should not be viewed as constituting a
“method of teaching” as the ‘phase’ might have suggested as it is being employed in this essay.
They are not teaching steps but rather stages of thought applicable to many other activities,
including teaching. The teacher and students may use these stages as a guide but these steps are not
unique or exclusive to teaching.
As pointed out earlier on, the role of the teacher as a guide in the application of the complete act of
thought method cannot be over stressed. Below is a presentation of four outlines on this method
based on Dewey’ steps. The aim at this juncture is to provide the teacher with a wider range for
choosing guidelines to follow as a basis for working out his own guidelines.22
1. For the general pattern of scientific inquiry, e.g. why does opium produce sleep?
a) A problem is noticed or discerned
b) Possible hypotheses are discussed
c) It may be necessary to collect additional facts.
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d) Hypotheses are formulated to enhance the explanation of the facts encountered.
e) Testable consequences are deduced.
f) The consequences are tested
g) The final results of the consequences are applied.23
2. For disciplined thought, e.g. Mathematics.
a) Identification of the problem or issue.
b) Gathering, organizing and evaluating relevant data.
c) Analysis of the problem or issue
d) Possible hypotheses are formulated and tested.
e) Conclusions are arrived at.
f) These conclusions are tested. In the instance of mathematics the conclusions of
solution arrived at, can be considered to solve similar issues or problems.
3. Steps in Judgment in Policy-Making.
a) Common purpose is clarified through mutual interpersonal persuasion. In other
words, the pupils are guided to formulate the state of affairs they wish to establish in
future concerning the aspect of the society, which the problem embraces.
b) The exploration or survey or assessment of existing conditions and their connection
with the ends projected and desired.
c) A plan of the charting of action leading through existing conditions to the
d) projected state of affairs24
4. Phases in a mode of inquiry for Social Studies, e.g. Geography and History lessons.
a) A problem is recognized.
b) Hypotheses are formulated through asking analytical questions, relating hypotheses,
and constantly reminding the pupils to be aware of the tentative nature of
hypotheses.
c) The logical implications of hypotheses are recognized.
d) The necessary data are gathered.
e) Data are analyzed, evaluated and interpreted.
f) The hypotheses are evaluated in the light of the data collected. In this phase, there
could be modifications since some data may be rejected for illogical implications but
finally a generalization is stated. 25
The outlines sketched above should not obscure a significant point. It is simply not enough for the
teacher to be aware or follow this step. That will be tantamount to making a mockery of the
scientific method. It is not sufficient to ask the people to explain the cause of hired assassination or
to define decision on the public execution of armed robbers. The teacher needs more than the five
phases of John Dewey as a guide. Both the teacher and the pupils, but especially needs, for example
some plans schema to assist him asses a policy decision on the execution of armed robbers or the
payment of a fine as a punishment and deterrent for hoarding. The teacher ought to know what
constitutes a reasonable justification of a policy to be able to guide the pupils towards a rational
approach to similar situations. The teacher should similarly know what constitutes an explanation in
order to be able to guide the pupils to explain the cause of assassinations and armed robbery in
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Nigeria. The scientific method and the scheme for explanation seem to complement each other. The
nature of the scientific method calls for explanations since most of the problems will be answering
to the question “Why?”
Non-valuative questions (of concepts and content) such as the discovery method tackles focus on
agreement about definitions, facts or explanations. For example the pupil(s) who respond(s) to
questions like: why is there hoarding of goods and inflation of prices in Nigeria? Or how the
Supreme Council was formed; and why and how the exploration of Mungo Park affected and
influenced subsequent British explorer of the River Niger? must offer explanations. According to
Ronald T. Hyman in Ways of Teaching, “facts stating and the offering of explanation are similar in
that both involve reliance on evidence, but explaining is the more complex of the two in that it
involves relating facts either to each other or to a generalization or a function”.26 One cannot do
without agreeing with Hyman because most discovery projects involve explanation since they go
beyond the statement of facts. Moreover an explanation schema is closely related to a request for a
cause of function.
As alluded to above, an explanation is an answer to the question, “why”? Irving Copi defined an
explanation as a group of statement or a story from which the thing to be explained can logically be
inferred and whose assumption removes or diminishes its problematic or puzzling character”. 27
From the above it is clear that explanations involve such questions as, “Explain why egrets fly
south during the dry season? “Explain what caused the Nigerian civil war; explain why 8 times 5
equal 40: It should be noticed that questions like “Explain the meaning of the term “osmosis”;
“Explain how to adjust an alignment” do not fit into this scheme since these two questions can be
phrased to read “define the term osmosis”; Describe how to adjust an alignment”.
Three Types of Explanation as Applicable To the Steps of “Complete Act of Thought”
Method
Three main types of explanations28 will now be considered that can guide the teacher in the
application of the complete act of thought method. The types include (1) Generalization — specific
instance; (2) purpose or function; and (3) chronological or sequential. Only one example will be
proffered in each explanation.29
Generalization — (Specification Instance type of explanation)
The basic parts of this type of explanation include: a generalization, which may be a rule, a
norm or an empirical (scientific) law, e.g. white walls reflect sunlight (thus produce
brightness); a situation or event to be explained, e.g. why is the principal’s office so bright;
evidence to show that the situation is a specific instance of the generalization e.g. the
principal’s office is bright. There is of course connecting evidence, which leads to the
explanation of the situation. In the case of the example above, the connecting evidence may
be something like; sunlight comes into the principal’s office since it has white walls. This
connecting evidence leads one to the understanding of the conclusion explaining why the
principal’s office was bright. (At the end of the consideration of these types of explanations,
reasons will be given for the importance of explanation in the scientific method).
Purpose or Functional Explanation
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According to Hyman “A functional explanation may be offered for the occurrence of a
particular situation at a particular time or for the existence of a particular situation in a
system for however long the system may exist”. Let us consider the police situation in our
system as an example. The basic part of this explanation includes: a purpose intention or
function (responding to a question like: why do we have police men?) e.g. in order to serve
and protect the citizens; a particular situation to be explained, e.g. why do we have
policemen? Evidence (s) that the action accomplished (by the policemen) is consonant with
the purpose of the agent, e.g. in principle as far as Nigeria is concerned, one may answer
positively, but in practice, it may be another answer. This example may limp (like many
other examples) but it has been proffered on purpose.
Sequential or Chronological Explanation
In this type of explanation there are series of events that result in the situation to be
explained e.g. explain how the Constituent Assembly was formed or explain the events that
led to the banning of the importation of certain goods into Nigeria. In short, listing
chronologically or sequentially some of these steps relevant and necessary for its occurrence
explain evidence.
The specific objective of this essay is that at the end of this “lesson” the teacher having kept those
three types of explanations and their schemata in mind will be able to direct a complete act of
thought method involving an explanation of some intriguing situation. The teacher should also be
able to discern where the specific contributions of the various students fit into the complete picture
of the explanation offered. It is hoped too that the teacher will be able to schematize the flow of the
mutual exchange of ideas and lead the pupils to resolve their perplexity and doubt.
Those types of explanation will help the teacher to eliminate a principal source of confusion and
lack of understanding in a typical Nigerian classroom, the teacher will be able to avoid the situation
of misunderstanding arising from an incomplete explanation. As some of us who taught in schools
before would have experienced, some pupils offer elliptical explanation by failing to state the
generalization under which a particular or specific instance to be explained is subsumed. Let’s take
an example in answer to a question like; why do we have a heart that beats? A pupil might offer
only connecting evidence, “we cannot do without a functioning heart. When the heart stops beating,
men die” or he might simply tell the purpose, “to pump blood to nourish the body.” In such a
situation, it is highly probable that there would be pupils who will fail not only to follow the
explanations but also fail to understand the explanation since they cannot make anything out of the
explanations, they are simply confused. This is where the teacher’s roles as a guide come in. He
will have to supply the missing parts and clear the confusion, which he might have created himself.
There are other avenues or tactics open to the teacher to employ as direct (or even indirect)
challenges for more explanations. Some of these challenges may force the pupils to realize
without being told directly that this explanation is unsatisfactory. For example let us consider
this dialogue:
Teacher: Why are these two angles equal?
Pupil: Because they are supplementary.
Teacher: Are supplementary angles equal?
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Pupil: Excuse me sir, No, they are not (He makes another guess).
Teacher: That is better.
Robert H. Ennis in Logic in Teaching suggested that the teacher can apply what he termed
“standard probes” to make the pupil restructure a seemingly conflicting explanation. Some
examples of these probes include “Can you tell a little more about that?” “Could you be more
explicit, please?”31
The crucial point to be noted is that only when the pupils understand all the parts of the
explanation being offered (e.g. generalization, purpose or sequential; connecting and specific
evidences) can the teacher and the pupils discuss the acceptability of that explanation. Question
like the following are relevant to associated mutual discussion to enhance better understanding of
explanation. Is the generalization relevant to the specific instance, e.g. white walls reflect
sunlight — (generalization); the principal’s office is bright (specific instance), Is the connecting
evidence pertinent? (Sunlight comes into the principal’s office, which has white walls). Is the
connecting evidence true? Is the sequence of events correct? Is the conclusion arrived at
compatible with established knowledge? Is the purpose consonant with the performer’s
character?
One item remains to end this essay: identifying two problems inherent in the application of the
complete act of thought method. Let us consider for an example that the teacher knows the
answer to a question like “Explain why and how the Supreme Military Council was formed”,
will it be proper to call the discussion that will ensue a complete act of thought or specific
inquiry method? Is the teacher inquiring or discovering? Are the pupils discovering if the teacher
asks exactly the right question to be able to elicit the right answer? What if the teacher has
provided the students with the right equipment and the right procedures to follow in the
laboratory, can one say that the pupils are thus inquiring? An interjection one likes to make is
that in Nigeria, to some very light minded people, in an attempt to respond to the above
questions (which to my mind cannot be easily answered but can be subjected to intense
discussion) may say something like: “But the teachers are expected to know already (at least
somehow) the answer to the questions and the outcomes of the experiments they set for the
pupils. As pointed out, such questions merely point out the problems inherent in the method.
There are still other questions to point out the weaknesses of the methods: if the pupils are
inevitably successful due to the teacher’s close guidance, will they be able to inquire on their
own when there will be no teacher to do any promptings? If the teachers lead the people to feelfail-
safe, will they get the sense of exploring, grouping and occasional failure that comes the way
of individuals attempting to discover on their own?
While one will advise that teachers should be careful not to make a mockery of this method in
their classroom application, the above and many other questions can simply be responded to by
counseling teachers not to suggest (and not to allow the pupils either) easy perplexities and
doubt, which may warrant easily arrived at correct answers. The purpose of the method to
challenge pupils to think and discover things for themselves together to resolve problems will
thus be defeated.
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In summary, looked at John Dewey’s complete act of thought method and considered how it can
be applied to teaching in Nigeria. In that endeavour, the three main types of explanation and the
use of explanation schemes with concrete examples were examined and discussed.
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Notes
1) Although John Dewey is known internationally as one of the chief exponents of the
doctrine of education and democracy, issues have been raised concerning the affinity
between education and the theory and practice of democracy. For more on such issues,
see Brian Crittenden (1973), Education and Social Ideals: A study in Philosophy of
Education. Canada Longman Limited, Pp.160 ff.
2) For a very comprehensive review of John Dewey’s literary works, see Guide to the
Works of John Dewey, edited by J.O. Ann Boydston (1970), Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University Press
3) George Hegel’s (1770-183 1) philosophy was centered on the conception of history as a
dialectical process. According to Hegel, history consists of a ceaseless succession of
ideological conflicts. Hegel conceived of every idea embodying both a partial truth
(which he called thesis) and its contradiction (antithesis). What emerges as the
consequence of the conflict of thesis and antithesis, a newer and higher idea that, in turn
becomes a thesis capable of generating a new conflict. Hegel believed that through these
dialectical forms (thesis, antithesis, and synthesis) human history is the unfolding of the
Absolute Idea. This is evident from the perennial emphasis being placed on the
importance of continuous assessment of pupils in the Nigerian primary and secondary
schools.
4) John Dewey, Democracy and Education (1916) New York: Free Press, Chapters one to
three.
5) Ibid. pp. 41-53.
6) John Dewey, (1933) How We Think 2nd edition, Boston: D.C. Health & Co, p. 202.
7) Dewey, How We Think pp. 15-16
8) Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 150
9) “The formulation of a complete act of thought” is one of Dewey’s best known
contributions to psychology and logic, see page 150 of Democracy and Education
10) Dewey, How We Think pp. 115-116
11) See David H. Russell (1956), Children’s Thinking, Boston: Ginn & Co. p .256
12) Irving M. Copi (1961), Introduction to Logic 2nd edition, New York: Macmillan
13) See page 40 of Isidore Starr in “The Nature of Critical Thinking and its Application in
Social Studies” Skill Development in Social Studies Thirty — third Yearbook of the
National Council for the Social Studies, Edited by Helen M. C. .Cracken Carpenter
14) Edwin Fenton (1967), The New Social Studies, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
p. 16.
15) William H. Burton, et al, corroborated John Dewey’s stand on how we think in their
Education for Effective Thinking (1960). New York: Application Century Crafts p. 317.
16) See Gilbert Ryles’s “Teaching and Training” in R.S. Peters (1967), The Concept of
Education, New York: Humanities Press, pp.114-115.
17) For a critical assessment of this statement, see A Philosophy For Nigerian Education
edited by A. Adaralegbe; A Fajana, “Missionary Educational Policy in Nigeria, 1842-
1882”, West African Journal of Education 14 (June 1970) pp .100-
18) 109; J.F. Ade Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1481-1891 London: Longmans,
Green & Co. 1965.
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19) Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 187.
20) Memories here refer to those who have been alleged to possess “little knowledge” but
cover this up by constantly reminding their colleagues and pupils that they had been on
the job for so many years.
21) See Dewey, Democracy and Education, chapters four and eleven.In this endeavour,
references will be provided to enhance the teacher’s research.
22) For details on the general pattern of scientific research, see Irving M. Copi, Introduction
to Logic, pp. 433-45 1.
23) Othanel B. Smith, et al., Fundamental of Curriculum Development (1957), New
York:Harcourt, Bruce & World, pp. 376 — 377; Bruce R. Roup, et al, The
24) Improvement of Practical Intelligence (1962), New York: Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, pp. 102-110.
25) Fenton, The New Social Studies, pp.16—17.
26) Ronald T. Hyman, Ways of Teaching, p.108.
27) Copi Introduction to Logic. p.420
28) For other types of explanation see Robert H. Ennis Logic in Teaching (1969) New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc. Pp. 255-362.
29) For other examples, see Ennis, Logic in Teaching, pp. 308—321.
30) Hyman, Ways of Teaching, p. 111.
31) Ennis, Logic in Teaching, p.291.
International Journal of African and African American Studies
Vol. 1, No.3, Jan 2005
32
References
Adaralegbe, Adeniji (1969) A Philosophy for Nigerian Education: Ibadan: Hienemann
Educational Books
Ajayi, J. F. Ade (1965) Christian Missions in Nigeria 1841-1891, London: Longmans,
Green & Co.
Boydston, J. O. (1970) Editor, Guide to the Work of John Dewey; Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University Press.
Burton, W.H & et al (1960) Education for Effective Thinking New York: Application Century
Crafts.
Copi, Irving M. (1961) Introduction to Logic, New York: Macmillan
Crittenden, Brian (1973) Education and Social Ideals: A Study in Philosophy of Education;
Canada: Canada Longmans Ltd.
Dewey, John (1916) Democracy and Education, New York: Free Press.
Dewey, John (1933) How We Think (2nd Edition, Boston: D. C. Health & Co.
Ennis, Robert, H (1969) Logic in Teaching New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
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E. Merrill Publishing Company.
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Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.
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Rusell, David H. (1956) Smith, Othanel B. et.al (1957) Fundamentals of Curriculum
Development New York: Harcourt, Bruce & World.

John Dewey; Education is life itself.

Education is life itself.
- John Dewey

John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that learning was active and schooling unnecessarily long and restrictive. His idea was that children came to school to do things and live in a community which gave them real, guided experiences which fostered their capacity to contribute to society. For example, Dewey believed that students should be involved in real-life tasks and challenges:


*

maths could be learnt via learning proportions in cooking or figuring out how long it would take to get from one place to another by mule
*

history could be learnt by experiencing how people lived, geography, what the climate was like, and how plants and animals grew, were important subjects

Dewey had a gift for suggesting activities that captured the center of what his classes were studying.

Dewey's education philosophy helped forward the "progressive education" movement, and spawned the development of "experiential education" programs and experiments.

Dewey's philosophy still lies very much at the heart of many bold educational experiments, such as Outward Bound. Read more about John Dewey, father of the experiential education movement.

ABOUT JOHN DEWEY

John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose thoughts and ideas have been highly influential in the United States and around the world. Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophical school of pragmatism. He is also one of the founders of functional psychology and was a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century.[1]

Although Dewey is best known for his works on education, he also wrote on a wide range of subjects, including experience and nature, art and experience, logic and inquiry, democracy, and ethics.

In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being key areas needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. In the necessary reconstruction of civil society, Dewey asserted that full democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully-formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being held accountable for the policies they adopt.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE IN INDUSTRIES

Science knowledge is useful in many areas industries, Laboratories etc

ITS IMPORTANCE IN INDUSTRIES

It is used in producing some chemical which are used in the industries.
Its also help in the production of some domestic chemicals e.g inpesticides

and many other acids for domestic and indusrial uses.

People would agree that science and technology are great of importance in

the universe and in the community of people in this world. Majority of the

countries in this international community are trying continuously to

increase their annual budget for science and technology. This development

clearly suggests that decision-makers both in government and private sector

industry are strongly convinced of the importance of developing science and

technology.

Science Knowledge is important

Science knowledge is required and cannot be negleted.

In the field of Science and Technologies many things have been manufactured

e.g Television, computer, phone etc

Medically, some apparatus like thermometer, Barometer, and lots more have

been produced for use.

Science Knowledge is Important to Man and his environment.

Importance Of Science to man

Science is very important because without science knowledge Man cannot discover the Naturel Resource and their uses.

Moreover, somethings that are more useful to man cannot be discovered without SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE.

Science is a blessing to man.

Michael Oke
http://www.mtechbiz.com